Rieber, L. P. (1996). Animation as feedback in a computer-based simulation: representation matters. Journal of Technology Research and Development, 44(1), 5-22.

The purpose of this study was to explore how users interact and learn during a computer-based simulation given graphical and textual forms of feedback. In two experiments, university students interacted with a simple simulation that modeled the relationship between acceleration and velocity. Subjects interacted with the computer simulation using a discovery-based approach: no formal instruction on the science concepts was presented. Subjects had control over the acceleration of a simple screen object - a ball - in a game-like context. Three simulation conditions were studied, each differing on how feedback of the ball's speed, direction, and position was represented: graphical feedback, textual feedback, and graphical plus textual feedback. Results showed that subjects learned more tacit knowledge when provided with animated graphical feedback than with textual feedback, although gains in explicit understanding of these science principles did not depend on the way the feedback was represented. Patterns of interactivity and frustration are also discussed.